Nanosilver

Nanosilver is a nanoparticle of silver that is used for its antimicrobial properties in hospitals and consumer products (including odor-resistant clothing, hand sanitizers, water treatment systems, and even microbe-proof teddy bears). Nanoparticles are between one and 100 nanometers, i.e. between one and 100 billionths of a meter. Around the world, nanosilver is a growing environmental and health concern. In the U.S., manufacturers do not have to disclose the use of nanoparticles on product labels. Recent findings show that silver nanoparticles may negatively impact plant growth when they enter the environment. In lab studies, silver nanoparticles are highly toxic to bacteria and fungi, both of which are critical to plant growth, particularly in organic agriculture. Nanoparticles such as nanosilver often enter the environment via wastewater and sewage sludge.

Uses
Nanosilver is used for its antimicrobial properties in hospitals and consumer products. A 2012 study found that nanosilver kills bacteria when soluble ions are activated via oxidation.

As of 2007, more than 500 consumer products contained some form of engineered nanoparticles. About 20 percent of the 500 contained nanosilver. Products containing nanosilver include socks, paints, bandages, and food containers. In clothing, nanosilver is used to restrict the growth of odor-causing bacteria. The Project on Emerging Nanotechnologies at the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars maintains an inventory of consumer products containing nanotechnology.

Nanosilver in Washing Machines
Samsung markets its "SilverCare" washing machines as able to remove 99.9 percent of bacteria. The washing machines release 400 billion nano-sized silver ions in each load of laundry. However, when another company, Fisher and Paykel, looked into the usefulness of nanosilver in washing machines compared to regular washing machine technology, they found that washing clothes at 20C (68F) with detergent removed 99.79 percent of bacteria. Thus, they determined, using nanosilver was not worth the environmental cost.

Environmental Effects
Despite its widespread use, relatively little is known about the environmental effects of nanosilver. The U.S. EPA sets water quality criteria at 1.9 parts per billion of silver in salt water and 3.4 parts per billion in fresh water. However, these standards are for silver in general, not nanosilver in particular. As nanosilver is toxic to microbial life, it could have a significant impact on the environment. Some top experts do not think the EPA standards on silver are protective enough to spare the environment from harm.

Toxicity to Fish
A study at Purdue University found that nanosilver particles suspended in solution were toxic, even lethal, to fathead minnows (a species of fish). Once the nanosilver settled, it became much less toxic, but still toxic, to the minnows. Researchers tested the minnows at various life stages. They found that the nanosilver particles were so small they were able to cross the egg membranes and move into the fish embryos in less than a day.

Effect on Plants and Soil Life
Another study measured the effects of plants grown in either sludge or sludge plus nanosilver. The tub of plants with nanosilver showed less microbial activity (compared to the other tub) but also off-gased four times as much nitrous oxide, a potent greenhouse gas that is 296 times stronger than carbon dioxide.

Nanosilver in Effluent and Sewage Sludge
In one study, six types of commercially available socks contained up to a maxiumum of 1360 parts per million of nanosilver and leached as much as 650 µg of silver into 500 mL of distilled water. Both colloidal and ionic silver leached from the socks, with particles ranging from 10 to 500 nanometers in diameter. The study was designed to simulate the amount of nanosilver entering wastewater treatment plants. Wastewater treatment plants likely release nanosilver into the environment either in the form of effluent or sewage sludge.

In comments to the EPA, officials from the sewage industry expressed concern about the increased use of silver, particularly nanosilver, as a pesticide in household products. The comments note that when the wastewater treatment plant is successful at removing silver from wastewater, all that does is remove the silver from the effluent only to put it into sewage sludge. The sewage industry worries that high concentrations of silver in sewage sludge will make them unable to dispose of sludge via land application. The letter says: "Widespread use of household products that release silver ions into sanitary sewer systems could increase silver concentrations in POTW influents, effluents, and biosolids. If silver pesticide product use becomes common, wastewater silver discharges could reach levels not seen in the last two decades—and could have adverse impacts on our wastewater treatment process as well as on the quality of our effluent and biosolids." The letter goes on to note that most silver used in products will ultimately make its way to wastewater treatment facilities, as it does not biodegrade.

They add that "two related studies, Choi and Hu (2008) and Choi et al. (2008) found that silver particles less than 5 nanometers in diameter are uniquely toxic to nitrifying bacteria, which are critical to biological nutrient removal at POTWs [publicly owned wastewater treatment plants] ." Furthermore, they note that particle size impacts silver's toxicity to aquatic organisms and that wastewater treatment plants may not be able to remove silver from wastewater if the particles are very small.

Human Exposure and Toxicity
One study found that fabrics containing nanosilver can release nanosilver when exposed to artificial human sweat. However, it is not known if nanosilver can be absorbed through skin. Another study published in 2010 found that nanosilver is toxic to human stem cells and toxicity increases the longer the nanoparticles are stored. A 2009 study compared silver with the known neurotoxicant pesticide chlorpyrifos, finding that silver is five times more toxic than chlorpyrifos. According to the study's findings, silver has the potential to kill developing nerve cells. While it would require a lot of silver to harm an adult, silver can pass from a mother to a developing fetus, and the fetus would require far less silver than an adult to suffer harm. Some evidence shows that nanosilver interferes with DNA replication.

Government Regulation
The nanosilver in clothing already on the market in the United States is not yet regulated. NPR reported that the EPA motioned that it would begin the process of writing rules soon, although it had not done so at that time.

In 2008, the [International Center for Technology Assessment] (ICTA) petitioned the EPA to classify nanosilver as a pesticide and regulate it as such. In August 2010, the U.S. EPA announced it was considering granting "conditional approval" to the Swiss company HeiQ Materials AG, a producer of nanoparticles, for the use of nanosilver as a pesticide in fabrics. The EPA has the authority to regulate nanomaterials under the Toxic Substances Control Act (ToSCA) and the Federal Insecticide Fungicide and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA). The EPA granted a conditional registration of HeiQ's nanosilver in 2011. In 2012, BNA.com reported that the White House was blocking EPA efforts to regulate nanosilver.

Marketing and Influence by Industry
Industry trade groups, such as the Silver Nanotechnology Working Group say that "nanosilver used as a microbicide shouldn’t be regulated more strictly than colloidal silver, particles of silver in solution a well established ingredient present in including in health supplements and other products."

Nanosilver as "Green"
In some instances, industry now markets nanosilver as a "green," ecofriendly, or even organic technology. The logic used behind such an idea implies that nanosilver is harmless both to humans and the environment, and it is used in place of chemicals like chlorine bleach, triclosan, or detergent that would be "worse" for the environment. While each of these chemicals has an environmental impact, it is important to note that nanosilver does not break down in the environment whereas other chemicals may.

Related SourceWatch articles

 * Nanotechnology
 * Biosolids
 * Sewage sludge
 * Food Rights Network

External resources

 * Friends of the Earth Australia
 * International Center for Technology Assessment
 * The Project on Emerging Nanotechnologies
 * Nanotechnology Citizen Engagement Organization

External articles

 * Nate Seltenrich, "Nanosilver: Weighing the Risks and Benefits," Environmental Health Perspectives, DOI:10.1289/ehp.121-a220.
 * Ryan Villarreal, "Pesticides In Your Bed? The EPA Said It's OK," International Business Times, April 3, 2013.
 * Andrew Behar, Danielle Fugere, and Michael Passoff," Slipping Through the Cracks: An Issue Brief on Nanomaterials in Food," As You Sow.

2012:
 * Matt McGrath, "Smelly socks raise silver stink," BBC, December 7, 2012.
 * Zong-ming Xiu, Qing-bo Zhang, Hema L. Puppala, Vicki L. Colvin, and Pedro J. J. Alvarez, "Negligible Particle-Specific Antibacterial Activity of Silver Nanoparticles," Nano Letters, 2012, 12 (8), pp 4271–4275, DOI: 10.1021/nl301934w, July 5, 2012
 * Birgit K. Gaiser, Stephanie Hirm, Ali Kermanizadeh, et al., “Effects of Silver Nanoparticles on the Liver and Hepatocytes in Vitro,” Toxicological Sciences, July 19, 2012.
 * Rickard Arvidsson, Sverker Molander & Björn A. Sandén, "Assessing the Environmental Risks of Silver from Clothes in an Urban Area," Human and Ecological Risk Assessment: An International Journal, DOI: 10.1080/10807039.2012.691412, June 6, 2012.
 * Meike van der Zande, Rob J. Vandebriel, Elke Van Doren, Evelien Kramer, Zahira Herrera Rivera, Cecilia S. Serrano-Rojero, Eric R. Gremmer, Jan Mast, Ruud J. B. Peters, Peter C. H. Hollman, Peter J. M. Hendriksen, Hans J. P. Marvin, And A. C. M. Peijnenburg, and Hans Bouwmeester, "Distribution, Elimination, and Toxicity of Silver Nanoparticles and Silver Ions in Rats after 28-Day Oral Exposure," ACS Nano, 6 (8), pp 7427–7442, August 2, 2012.
 * Patrick Ambrosio and Pat Rizzuto, "White House Blocking EPA Efforts to Issue Rules on Nanomaterials, Advocates Say," Bloomberg, BNA, May 24, 2012.

2010:
 * H.S. Sharma, S. Hussain, J. Schlager, et al., “Influence of Nanoparticles on Blood-Brain Barrier Permeability and Brain Edema Formation in Rats,” Acta Neurochir Suppl. 106 (2010): 359-364.
 * Richard Denison, Sludging through the nano lifecycle: Caution ahead, Environmental Defense Fund, September 23, 2010.
 * Andrew Schneider, "EPA May Give 1st Approval of Nanosilver for Fabrics", AOL News, August 18, 2010.
 * "Toxicity of silver nanoparticles increases during storage", Nanowerks, August 18, 2010.
 * Helen Knight, "Antibacterial socks may boost greenhouse emissions", New Scientist, August 13, 2010.
 * Nicholette Zeliadt, "Silver Beware: Antimicrobial Nanoparticles in Soil May Harm Plant Life", Scientific American, August 9, 2010.
 * S. Kittler, C. Greulich, J. Diendorf, M. Koller, and M. Epple, "Toxicity of Silver Nanoparticles Increases during Storage Because of Slow Dissolution under Release of Silver Ions", Chemistry of Materials, July 30, 2010.
 * Marina E. Quadros and Linsey C. Marr, "Environmental and Human Health Risks of Aerosolized Silver Nanoparticles", Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association, July 2010.
 * Isaac Davison, "Cleaner could be dirty", New Zealand Herald, June 19, 2010.
 * "Treated fabrics exposed to faux sweat release silver nanoparticles", Environmental Health News, April 30, 2010.
 * Alex Halperin, "Nanosilver: Do We Know The Risks?", New Haven Independent, March 17, 2010.
 * Brian Wallheimer, "Popular nanoparticle causes toxicity in fish, study shows", Purdue Newsroom, March 3, 2010.
 * Heather Hamlin, "Silver is a potent nerve cell toxicant", Environmental Health News, January 21, 2010.

2009:
 * Sherrie Elzey and Vicki H. Grassian, "Agglomeration, isolation and dissolution of commercially manufactured silver nanoparticles in aqueous environments", October 5, 2009.
 * "Nano silver: extreme germ killer presents a growing threat to public health", Friends of the Earth, Australia, June 10, 2009.
 * "Review of available data and knowledge gaps in risk assessment published for Nano Silver", SafeNano, UK, June 1, 2009.
 * "Nanosilver used in food storage materials found to interfere with DNA replication", NanoWerk, February 19, 2009.
 * Cal Baier-Anderson, "Regulating nano-silver as a pesticide", Environmental Defense Fund, February 12, 2009.
 * Yun Xie, "Detecting silver nanoparticles for our safety", Ars technica, January 22, 2009.
 * Sudha Nambudiri, "Nanotoxicology research gaining momentum", Expressbuzz, January 6, 2009.

2008:
 * Samuel N. Luoma, Silver Nanotechnologies and the Environment: Old Problems or New Challenges?, Project on Emerging Nanotechnologies, September 2008.
 * Troy M. Benn and Paul Westerhoff, "Nanoparticle Silver Released into Water from Commercially Available Sock Fabrics", Environmental Science & Technology, April 9, 2008.

2006:
 * John Nielsen and Michele Norris, "EPA Moves Toward Nanotechnology Regulations", NPR, All Things Considered, November 23, 2006.